The Violence of Lust

Ovid in his book, Metamorphoses, demonstrates his skills as an experimentalist writer. His themes center on differing ways of viewing topics such as creation, the character of the gods, and love. He writes an anthology of transformation stories that give meaning and origin to the things of this world and of the supernatural world. Of particular importance, and seen throughout his stories, is the theme of love and lust. Ovid tells of all types of loves: from unrequited passions, to familial love, motherly and sisterly love, to true love. However, most examined and critiqued in his works is the concept of lust and desire as a form of love. This is a scene paralleled in his stories time and time again from gods and humans alike. It is a force that affects us all. Such a force that, in his viewpoint, brings about violence and destruction. Ovid paints pictures for the reader in which a predator attacks his prey, emphasizing the experience of the victim, in order to show the violence of excessive lust. This is especially demonstrated in the parallel stories of “Apollo and Daphne” and “Tereus, Procne, and Philomela” as the desire of both Apollo and Tereus ultimately lead to the entrapment and destruction of Daphne and Philomela.

“Apollo and Daphne” found in Book I: The Shapes of Changes follows the story of the god Apollo as he pursues a nymph named Daphne in his desire for her. Apollo had recently defeated a Python and was outspoken in his victory to the god Cupid. In return, Cupid fires two of his arrows, one of love and the other of lead, into Apollo and Daphne respectively. Apollo immediately falls in love with Daphne and she, conversely, is undesiring. A chase ensues as Daphne flees and Apollo fights to reach her. Eventually, Apollo catches up to her, but just as he is about to grab her, Daphne is transformed into a laurel tree by her father, Peneus. From then on, Apollo declares his love for the laurel tree and makes it his own. Paralleling this story, and found later in Ovid’s Metamorphoses in Book VI: Of Praise and Punishment, is the story of “Tereus, Procne, and Philomela” which tells of the destruction of a family unit. Tereus is married to Procne but is overcome with desire for Procne’s sister, Philomela. So he tricks Philomela and brings her to a remote area where he rapes her. Afterwards, to keep her from telling of what happened, he cuts out her tongue and continues to defile her. Philomela is left on the island for a year until she is rescued by her sister. Procne then enacts revenge on Tereus by killing their son and feeding it to Tereus. When Tereus finds out, he pursues them in rage and they transform into birds. One of Ovid’s main tools in portraying this theme of desire and lust as a destructive force is through his use of imagery in nature. For example, in the story “Apollo and Daphne”, Ovid uses an extended simile to describe the destructive nature of Apollo’s passion for Daphne.

“Now just as in a field of the harvest stubble is all burned off, or as hedges are set ablaze when, if by chance, some careless traveler should brush one with his torch or toss away the still-smoldering brand at break of day-just so the smitten god went up in flames until his heart was utterly afire, and hope sustained his unrequited passion” Ovid, Metamorphosis, Book I, p.35, 678-685.

Here, descriptive terms centered around ruin are used to paint a picture of a field being set on fire. This field is completely “burned off” and the hedges are “set ablaze” resembling the heart of the “smitten god” that was “utterly afire” giving the sense of a complete lack of control for the destruction that ensues as a result of the power lust holds. The traveler is described as careless in comparison to someone who falls susceptible to the force that is “unrequited passion”. As a whole, Ovid’s use of imagery here emphasizes how dangerous and reckless desire is. It destroys everything in its path, leaving remnants of what once was, behind. Just as the field and hedges are burned down and changed, so too changed is the person lust has afflicted. The false sense of hope given by the possibility of achieving his passion, and the possibility of what will happen when Apollo reaches Daphne, only fuels the fire of desire he holds for her more. But ultimately, this fire is ruinous, demonstrating Ovid’s viewpoint of lust equating to destruction. Ovid also uses predator-prey comparisons throughout his writing in order to draw emphasis to the destructive nature of lust through the experience of the victim.

In the story “Apollo and Daphne” when Apollo begins his pursuit of Daphne, Ovid writes,

“Admonished by his own passion, he accelerates, and runs as swiftly as a Gallic hound chasing a rabbit through an open field; the one seeks shelter and the other, prey — he clings to her” Book I, p.37, 735-739.

Apollo is seen in likeness to a Gallic hound, the predator, as he chases a rabbit, personified as Daphne, through a field. He is driven to chase her by his passion for her, it is the catalyst for him to “accelerate” and draw near to her; a primal instinct to reach his prey and “cling to her”. In contrast, Daphne is portrayed as a rabbit fleeing from its predator, “seeking shelter” to save her from ensuing danger. The resulting scene painted for readers is the desperation of Daphne to find safety from the imminent danger closing in on her. This danger is rooted in Apollo’s lust; he is controlled by his passion for Daphne, bringing out this predator instinct to get what he wants; to run after her, trap her, and make her his own. Daphne’s safety and security are destroyed as she flees from Apollo and fights to avoid his lustful passions.

In another example, from the story “Apollo and Daphne”, Apollo is trying to convince Daphne that he isn’t chasing her out of ill will. He proclaims his love for her in an attempt to get her to slow down and Ovid, again, uses predator-prey rhetoric to demonstrate the vulnerability of Daphne as she seeks to flee her pursuer.

“Thus lamb flees wolf, thus dove from eagle flies on trembling wings, thus deer from lioness, thus any creature flees its enemy, but I am stalking you because of love” Book I, p.35-36, 698-701.

Demonstrated above, Daphne is directly compared to a lamb fleeing, a dove flying on “trembling wings” and a deer. All these creatures are animals that are seen as weak and are commonly stalked and preyed upon in nature. They are left in a state of vulnerability as they “flee their enemy” and their helplessness is evident, especially when portrayed as trembling. The unequal power dynamic existing between Apollo and Daphne is clear from this comparison as the predator “stalks” his prey. Apollo, in likeness to the wolf, eagle, and lioness is the enemy. He is the source of danger creating fear in Daphne as she flees for her life. But Apollo, overcome in what he feels is love for Daphne, is desperate to reach her and expresses his desire for her. But she continues to run, fearful of the danger contained in his passion. Ovid mirrors usage of predator-prey rhetoric to highlight the experience of the victim from the destruction lust creates later in Metamorphoses in the story of “Tereus, Procne, and Philomela” as Tereus asserts his dominance over Philomela.

“And scarcely able to defer his lust, the barbarian exults, and keeps his eyes fixed firmly on his now defenseless prize, exactly as when Jove’s great bird of prey, the eagle, drops into his lofty nest the hare gripped in his talons, and the prey and captor both know there is no escape” Book VI, p.211, 739-745.

In this text, Tereus is directly related to a barbarian, an uncivilized & primitive creature known for violence. This barbarian instinct is expressed in his uncontrollable lust he has for Philomela as he is “scarcely able to defer it”. Also comparable to an eagle, the bird of the most powerful god, Jove, Tereus is expressed in great power as he takes Philomela. The eagle, a “great bird of prey” returns to his nest with the “hare gripped in his talons” knowing he has succeeded in trapping his prize. Likewise, Tereus has taken Philomela away from her father to a deserted island where all protection is lost. She is his “defenseless prize” and the hare trapped by the eagle. Philomela is completely exposed and vulnerable now in the presence of Tereus. He “fixes his eyes on her” with the knowledge that he has almost succeeded in getting that which he desired most. This is expressed in the text as being known by both the prey and the captor; there was no hope for escape and Philomela was completely at the mercy of Tereus. In this position, lust motivated the attack on Philomela and she was left in the path of emerging destruction. Predator-prey rhetoric is seen again in the story of “Tereus, Procne, and Philomela” after Tereus has attacked Philomela to give readers a picture to the horror of the event.

“And after he was done with her she shuddered like a young lamb, broken by an old grey wolf and flung aside, who cannot yet believe that she is safe; or like a wounded dove, her plumage brightly stained with her own blood, who trembles with her dread that the sharp claws which have embraced and raked her will return” Book VI, p.211-212, 756-762.

Philomela is directly described as a shuddering young lamb who has been broken. She is viewed as a wounded dove stained with her own blood, trembling with dread, fearful of the return of danger. These stark images embody the helplessness and brokenness Philomela is experiencing as the gentlest of creatures are used to parallel her character. These animals are ones that are pure white symbolizing purity and innocence, set in opposition to powerful entities such as a wolf and the claws of an undisclosed predator. The agony and pain she feels is overwhelming as she shudders in brokenness, trembles in fear, and is forever afflicted with the event, stained by her own blood. Tereus, personified as the grey wolf and owner of raking claws, has given into his lustful passion and violently attacked Philomela, flinging her aside when he was finished, but not without the prospect of coming back to cause more destruction. He allowed his desire for Philomela to take control, causing him to commit the ultimate form of violence, compromising Philomela and bringing her endless suffering.

When considering the two stories, “Apollo and Daphne” and “Tereus, Procne, and Philomela”, it is evident Ovid utilizes heavy predator-prey rhetoric to demonstrate the powerlessness of the victim and the entrapment they experience. The comparisons drawn between those propelled by lust and the primal instincts they have to act on such desires, regardless of the cost, explain the power that lust holds in the creation of violence. “Tereus, Procne, and Philomela” is a response and further continuation of the story “Apollo and Daphne” as it builds upon the destructive nature of lust. Daphne was ultimately transformed into a laurel tree and forever became a part of Apollo as he made her his own. He trapped her forever. But, in contrast, Philomela was physically harmed by Tereus; she was defiled and mutilated, a clear picture of violence. While undertones of such destruction were seen in “Apollo and Daphne” through predator-prey comparisons, “Tereus, Procne, and Philomela” clearly portrayed the destruction caused by lust through both intensified predator-prey rhetoric and physical actions. As a whole, the experiences of both Daphne and Philomela are emphasized as they are overtaken by those who desire them most resulting in their own powerlessness and destruction.